"If Bolivar came back to visit us today, he would find his doubts justified. Our people are not capable of being governed by a representative system. What then would he recommend? Undoubtedly he would counsel us to carry on with the system. For two reasons: firstly because despite its defects, no better way of choosing government has been found by the experts; and secondly, because for 130 years we have proclaimed to our Latin American neighbours the virtues of universal suffrage, equality before the law, division of power, respect for the dignity of the individual which form part of the philosophy of democracy and we could not now, even if we wanted to, change these values. It is true that the garb of democracy is as yet too big for us, but the remedy does not consist in cutting down the cloth but in growing into the garment."

José Figueres Ferrer

The French ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity impregnate the constitutions of Latin American countries. These values led to the inclusion of norms that establish equality before the law, and limit the possibility of discrimination which might affect a person's dignity or liberty. In Costa Rica, Article 33 of the Constitution sets forth these principles.

In 1949, with the adoption of the new Constitution in Costa Rica, women acquired the same rights and privileges as men, in large part due to José Figueres Ferrer. Article 90 of the 1949 Constitution states that citizenship is "the conjunction of political rights and duties for both sexes". This was the first step towards giving women the right to vote and granting full citizenship rights to women. Women exercised their right to vote for the first time in 1950 in a plebiscite to determine the annexation of the Tigra and La Fortuna settlements to the province of San Carlos.

The 1953 elections reflected women's participation in national politics as three women were elected to congress. In addition, in 1953 the National Liberation Party, founded by José Figueres Ferrer, elected a woman as President of the Executive Committee for the first time. Unfortunately, there has been little growth in women's representation in the past 50 years. The number of parliamentarians elected during each subsequent four-year period has averaged 2.63 per cent. Between 1953 and 1986 there were 26 congresswomen. Between 1986 and 1990 a woman became President of the Legislative Assembly. As of the last elections in Costa Rica in February 1998, there are 11 women parliamentarians in a legislature of 57 ­ i.e. 19 per cent of the total representatives.

This reflects both the obstacles that women face in entering parliament, and the lack of interest on the part of the establishment to ensure that women take part in legislating for the benefit of the country.

The Obstacles

Democratic processes in Costa Rica are not advantageous for electing women to public office. While citizens are free to elect whom they wish as their representatives, men lead political parties and this limits the possibilities of electing women in certain areas. Is this because women are uninterested in participating in politics or is it because they are less acceptable as candidates due to their traditional role as housewives?

It is easy for women to answer this question. The sexual division of labour in society creates two types of limitations for women's participation in political organizations and governmental institutions. First, since domestic duties are their principle obligation, they have less time to get involved in politics. Some women do manage both charges but they do so at great cost, with long working hours which leave them at a disadvantage compared to their male colleagues. Also, women have less of a tendency to take on competitive activities such as politics because they have not been prepared to assume such responsibilities. This is not due to a lack of talent or capacity for leadership on their part, but to a lack of opportunity as well as cultural and social prejudices.

Second, the gendered division of space (the assumption that public matters are a male domain and private matters are a female domain) makes women's participation even more difficult. When women do enter politics, particularly as legislators, they continue to be seen in their roles as mothers and housewives and thus are assigned "soft" tasks in the field of education, or social services; they are excluded from making economic, governmental or administrative decisions. Their participation in the social and cultural areas, which while important, limits their contributions to legislative work to only these areas.

It is important to point out that the restrictions that apply to the field of politics, where all important organizations are predominantly male, do not apply to citizens' organizations such as community groups, social assistance groups and cultural organizations. In these groups women are active and in the majority. Women are also active in non-governmental organizations that deal with the rights of women. These are not political parties but they, nevertheless, have great social importance.

Within political parties in Costa Rica the myth that women should adopt masculine characteristics, i.e. adjust to the style designed by men in order to advance in politics, is still prevalent. Political parties have made use of token women as representatives in parliament and in social departments, in order to avoid being accused of discrimination. In reality, this participation has been an empty gesture.

Some Solutions

The two main parties in Costa Rica show similar patterns in women's representation. The Social-Christian Party has a membership of approximately 20 to 25 per cent women. During the last elections José Figueres Ferrer granted women 30 per cent active participation. The Vice President of the country is currently a woman. Costa Rican women were given high office, such as the vice-presidency of the legislative assembly, ministries, vice-ministries and high-level ambassadorial positions.

In Latin America, full participation of women in parliament will not occur before mechanisms of either quotas or agreements between the political parties are introduced.

It is a fact that the higher the pyramid of power, the lower the participation of women. Central American countries have not made any rulings in this regard, with the exception of Costa Rica. In 1990, Costa Rica passed a law for the real equality of women. This law includes a chapter entitled "Of Political Rights and for the Discharge of Public Office", which promotes the political participation of women, assigns funds to political parties for this purpose, and establishes percentages for women's representation in public office.

The law has not yet brought about significant changes. However, it is well-known, through various countries' experiences, that positive discrimination with the establishment of minimum quotas is considered an efficient method to combat negative discrimination. Given this outlook, it is hoped that the participation of women in the traditionally male political arena might increase gradually in the near future and that the barriers hindering women's access to the higher echelons of power may be removed. Women's organizations in Costa Rica are planning to push the issue of minimum quotas for the participation of women in political fora, so that women from all walks of life and from ethnic minorities are given a chance to obtain political training.

In Latin America, full participation of women in parliament will not occur before mechanisms of either quotas or agreements between the political parties are introduced. In Costa Rica in particular the "pseudo-discrimination" taking place in parliament must be eliminated. This discrimination consists of "placing" women in the committees dealing with social matters.

There is a need to increase the number of women parliamentarians in developing countries. To promote sustainable development, women, as significant actors in a population, can share in the social, economic and spiritual cost of structural reform, thereby aiding the process of globalization that dependent economies are currently undergoing.

Women's Contributions to Politics

Studies indicate that female deputies have been successful 81 per cent of the time in getting laws that they submitted to the Legislative Assembly approved; men, on the other hand, only have a 48 per cent success rate.

Women parliamentarians in Costa Rica have brought a significant range of expertise and insights into the political process and have proven their reliability, transparency, and efficiency in their dealings.

The most fruitful period of legislative work
for women took place between 1990­1994. It was during this time that important bills aimed at improving quality of life were presented by women; this helped to further unify and strengthen the group of female parliamentarians.

During my term as a parliamentarian (1990­1994), I directed my efforts towards achieving female representation in all legislative divisions. We succeeded in the budgetary and environmental commissions as well as in legal affairs, anti-narcotics (which was lead by a woman), agriculture, government and administration. Furthermore, the last details of a bill proposing reforms of the electoral codes are currently being finalized. This bill would ensure that in those districts where the electorate is mainly female, "female electoral districts" are created. This would allow women to appear on the ballot paper as candidates for positions such as members of parliament, aldermen (regidoras), union members and mayors, in those particular districts.

In general, the participation of women parliamentarians has been exceptional. Women legislators have become synonymous with security and reliability as they bring their insights and experiences to the issues and the need to improve existing social conditions. Women parliamentarians in Costa Rica have proven to be as incisive and reliable as their male colleagues. Some would even argue that women's feelings of ethical and moral responsibility for their country, their family and their electors, turn to strong dedication when directed to public concerns.

Another fundamental characteristic of female parliamentarians has been their discipline, the regularity with which they attend sessions, and the dedication they show in fulfilling their duties both as individuals and as groups. In Costa Rica women play leading roles in the field of public health, and in the fight against narcotics and money-laundering.

Women MPs have shown that they are capable of drafting laws of national impact. In dealing with budgetary and financial legislation, women have kept in mind the need to ensure a fair distribution of benefits amongst the various strata of society. In short, women parliamentarians in Costa Rica have brought a significant range of expertise and insights into the political process and have proven their reliability, transparency and efficiency in their dealings.

Enhancing Women's Parliamentary Input

It is important to stress that Costa Rica has been a democracy for a century, a rare event not only in Latin America but in the world. Because of its civil and legal tradition, all mechanisms, whether social, legal or political can be made use of to ensure that an overwhelming majority of women enter into politics.

Based on the Costa Rican experience, various strategies have been instrumental in enhancing women's political contribution and performance in parliament. Some of the principle strategies are outlined below.

• Ensure that the programmes of political parties are aimed at the needs of the people, both men and women, and not merely at gaining elections. Women must promote the relevance of their background, diverse experiences and insights to political parties.

• Ensure the participation of women in the drafting of government programmes and plans so that their abilities are validated and their ideas are integrated in political projects.

• Assume leadership in different parliamentary committees, such as budgetary and economic committees, where issues that are relevant for women can be addressed, such as the lowering of external and internal debts and the liberating of funds for the eradication of poverty.

• Lobby for the approval of laws which
  ensure that 40 per cent of the public funds destined for parties participating in elections is set aside for facilitating women's participation and input.

• Create an Inter-Parliamentary Union of Women among the existent Latin American Parliaments, to enable women parliamentarians to share their experiences and improve the quality of their work.

• Make the study of civic education, political training and theory of state obligatory in both primary and secondary schools. Ignorance or lack of understanding of these important subjects is one of the main hindrances in raising women's consciousness and generating confidence in dealing with political issues.

• Urge co-operation between national, regional and international organizations and individuals, to maintain a momentum for networking, sharing experiences and expertise, and developing a body of lessons from different political processes. For example, in Costa Rica, as a result of the Fourth World Conference on Women, the Centre for Women and Family was established; binding quotas (40 per cent) for the participation of women in elected posts was established; and studies on the conditions of women were commissioned in order to create laws and programmes for their improvement.