The first step is for women MPs to understand how the legislature works in order to be able to use this knowledge to operate more effectively within the legislature. MPs can acquire this knowledge in a variety of ways, including specific training and orientation programmes as well as more general socialization processes. For example, it is common for legislative leaders
and other officials to offer orientation to new members on how the assembly works. Often, political parties also provide such training.

and through training by political parties.

Training by political parties is particularly useful since it offers insight into how the MP's party understands the procedures and how the party itself fits into the procedures. Since the organization of legislative work often depends on party composition, parties have a significant influence on procedures. In some parts of the world political parties offer special skills training especially for women, since they may be less experienced in legislative procedures than men. However, in many parts of the developing world most parties do not have the resources, nor the willingness, to offer such training. In fact, as many of the case studies point out, very often party allegiance can handicap the development of political discourse in general, and of any assistance to women MPs in particular. Political parties in Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon, for example, do not allow for any structural improvements, and still operate with the assumption that women's perspectives and women's issues do not deserve any specific priority. This has obvious repercussions on the procedure inter-party, as well as intra-party, and within parliament itself.

Network with women MPs, and mentoring (shadowing) by more experienced women MPs.

Networking is a crucial mechanism of training and socialization for women MPs. Networking provides quick access to knowledge that may otherwise take years of experience to acquire and enables women MPs to come together to discuss their concerns and share their knowledge and expertise, thus greatly enhancing their potential for effectiveness. Mentoring (i.e. supervising, befriending, and giving advice and guidance) by more experienced women MPs is another important way of providing special training for women MPs. In the Netherlands, for example, a system of "shadowing" has been developed whereby women who are hesitant to be nominated for elected office assist elected members to gain confidence.

Participate in joint training sessions for men and women.

In addition to programmes especially geared for women, orientation exercises involving both men and women are also important. In joint training sessions, women are encouraged to address their areas of interest and to network with male counterparts, as well as to learn how to break through established "codes of conduct". At the same time, male deputies are made aware of women's issues and the importance of enabling women deputies to act effectively in the legislature. The latter in particular is an important step in overcoming the sense of threat that many male deputies feel vis-à-vis women colleagues, since it provides an opportunity not only to raise awareness of gender issues, but to indicate the extent to which they are interlinked with most other social, economic and political concerns. Thus training and orientation of male parliamentarians plays an important role in the mainstreaming of women's issues and perspectives.

Enlist in voice projection and public speaking exercises.

In addition to information about both the written and unwritten rules and procedures of parliament, women may also find voice projection and public speaking training particularly helpful. Many women have difficulty speaking authoritatively and some find it difficult to make themselves heard in large legislative chambers. New entrants, in particular those in developing democracies, confess that they find it difficult to be given the opportunity to speak, and to know the ins and outs of parliamentary speaking procedures. The effectiveness of former actress Glenda Jackson in the British House of Commons, for example, proves that a trained woman's voice can be as impactful as a man's.

Learn how to handle the media.

Some women MPs in established democracies have also organized media training sessions. This involves, among other things, seminars and workshops where MPs are informed about "media-speak" (i.e. what kind of information the media is interested in and how best to deliver it) and advised on how to network with media personalities and which ones are more sympathetic to women's issues.

Representation

Institutional rules, customs and procedures determine the key legislative positions and functions such as committee assignments and participation in floor debates. Recruitment to these important positions may depend on any one or a combination of factors including party position, seniority and faction, ability, support for the government, national or local profile, and issue expertise. While the appropriate strategy will depend to some extent on the number of women in the legislature, at a minimum women should identify key positions and functions and strategize on ways to get women into these positions. If existing channels are not open to promoting women into key positions, new avenues should be developed. In some countries, such avenues could be parliamentary or governmental women's committees. In other cases, nationwide umbrella organizations (non-governmental) or strong grass-roots organizations can act as catalysts to get women into key areas. Further avenues could be opened through training and educational programmes, or through pressure for representation by the media. International pressure could also be used to encourage governments to include women at all levels of power and decision-making. ⁴ Knowledge about these positions and ways to get women in can be shared by mentoring, caucusing and networking. This enables women MPs to maximize their impact. Sympathetic men in crucial posititions are invaluable allies.

Women in key positions not only enhance their own ability to make an impact but they also facilitate opportunities for other women to speak out. For example, a study of the Colorado State legislature measured differences in the speaking behaviour of members of legislative committees by sex, seniority, interest and party. In one study it was found that women did better at controlling the dialogue and making themselves heard when other women were present, visible (sitting where they could be seen) and in positions of authority. ⁵ This research also showed that male dominance of conversation, discussion and meetings enhanced their power and undermined that of women even where the formal positions of men and women legislators were equal.

Use the media to increase women's visibility.

One way of building women's careers and thus their advancement into key positions is by learning how to use the media to increase the visibility and confidence of women parliamentarians. Since women employed in the media field have their own problems of self-establishment and advancement they may be sympathetic to MPs interested in women's concerns. In fact, one of the key problems in the media is the lack of women in decision-making posts, which effectively means that decisions concerning editorial content and production issues are largely controlled by men. Hence there may be room for women MPs and media personalities to network on the basis of common interests and concerns.

Stress importance of "soft" committees;

Typically women's interests have led them to what is still perceived as the less prestigious (and less powerful) social policy areas of specialization, i.e., committee assignments such as education, health and family affairs. Many women MPs believe it is necessary to establish women's presence in the more prestigious and traditionally influential sites within parliaments, such as finance and foreign affairs.

while working to establish the presence of women in all committees.

Others argue that the distinction itself cannot be justified. Norwegian political scientists have made the important point that describing "soft" values as weak values ignores the facts that these areas, in which Nordic women are most active and in the majority, account for the largest share of public expenditure ­ education, health and social services at local and regional levels. Women choose these areas because they prefer them, and they accept making the very difficult decisions such as whether to prioritize care of the elderly or day care. ⁶ The traditional distinction between "hard" and "soft" values is old-fashioned and inaccurate and should be contested by women representatives. Ideally a twofold strategy must be developed: on the one hand the importance of such areas needs to be continually stressed; on the other hand simultaneous efforts should be made to ensure women's active participation in all policy areas.

Impact/Influence on Output

In order to discuss the impact of women representatives it is useful to make a distinction between women's issues and women's perspectives. Women's issues are issues that mainly affect women, either for biological reasons (for example, breast cancer screening, reproductive rights) or for social reasons (e.g. sex equality or childcare policy). Women's perspectives are women's views on all political concerns. Some research indicates that although broadly the same issues are significant for both sexes, women's perspective on issues differs from that of men. For example, research carried out in Britain in 1996 showed that although both women and men prioritized economic issues, women were more concerned about part-time work, low pay and pension rights, while men were more concerned about unemployment.

and educate MPs about both.

MPs need to have knowledge and understanding about both women's issues and women's perspectives ­ if only, as most contributors to this volume have expressed, to see the other half of reality ­ in order to produce output that has a favourable impact on women. The kind of impact MPs will wish to have will inevitably vary by party. Professor Skjeie found that women representatives from different political parties emphasize women's issues such as childcare, but they do so from different perspectives and with different policy implications. Hence, conservative women for example, stress women's needs as mothers, while those from the socialist parties stress their roles as workers. ⁷

Stay informed about women's issues;

But the need for knowledge and information exists regardless of party perspective. Women MPs have successfully used various means of becoming informed about women's issues and perspectives. Most important in this regard is what contributors to this volume have highlighted: maintaining close links with women's organizations of all kinds, and drawing on their expertise and resources. Such linkages with the women's movement also enhance the legitimacy of MPs and keep them in touch with changing, often varying, women's concerns. Other sources of information are academic experts on different issue areas, particularly those working with women's studies who are often willing to make their knowledge of issues available.

by maintaining close links with the women's movement and women's organizations: by using academic experts;

European parliamentarians have made use of the goodwill and knowledge of academic experts to draft policies on such matters as domestic violence, female bondage, care of children and the aged, pensions and women's health issues. Some of the most active pro-women European Union Commissioners, such as Swedish Anita Gradin, make a point of involving non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and academic experts in their work to further the women's issues through their respective portfolios and agendas. Some politicians keep themselves informed by sponsoring seminar series on the issues, a process that also extends their contacts and networks within the women's movement. Research on policy issues is a major political tool and can be gathered and used by MPs by participating in

and by caucusing with the media, national and international organizations.

conferences organized by women's organizations, experts, and politicians and by caucusing with other MPs who have similar interests. Caucusing by women MPs is part of both learning and using the rules. Deputies interested in a particular issue, for example employment or women's health, might meet to identify important upcoming votes and committee discussions and decide on tactics and strategies to influence the outcome.

Discourse

Parliaments have their own distinct language, a product both of their specialized tasks and functions and also of their culture and their traditional male membership. For example, in Britain the House of Commons has a discourse characterized by a formal set of titles, modes of address and rules of debate. It has also acquired, from many years of male domination, a barracking, sexist and lavatorial "humour" that women MPs find offensive,

and learn speech and debating techniques to quell it.

especially when it is used on them. Familiarity with speaking and debating techniques can help to curtail such "yahoo" heckling. British women have successfully used the media to draw attention to the sexism in the House of Commons by revealing these practices to women in the media and to other journalists eager to criticize ill-behaved MPs. The result was a series of press and broadcasting items about the childish and sexist behaviour of male MPs. The public, previously unaware of this, disapproved of their MPs behaviour.