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Footnotes
- Gallagher, Michael. 1988. "Conclusions". In Michael Gallagher and Michael Marsh. eds. Candidate Selection in Comparative Perspective: The Secret Garden of Politics. London: Sage.
- Norris, Pippa. 1996. "Legislative Recruitment". In LeDuc, Niemi and Norris, eds. Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective. London: Sage.
- Clearly this is not the only concern and sometimes not even the primary concern. Concern for party unity or intra-party factional fights may from time to time trump the vote maximizing desire, but in the long run parties in democracies are forced to be concerned about winning votes. If not, they run the risk of disappearing from the political stage.
- Gallagher. 1988. p. 248.
- While quotas are often credited with being responsible for the lead that Nordic countries have in terms of women’s representation, it should be noted that Nordic countries were generally world leaders even before such rules were adopted. Causality may run from being a world leader to adopting rules, rather than the rules causing one to become a world leader.
- A proportional representation (PR) system is any system
which consciously attempts to reduce the disparity between a party’s
share of the national vote and its share of the parliamentary
seats. For example, if a party wins 40 per cent of the votes,
it should win approximately 40 per cent of the seats. Closed list
is a form of list PR in which electors are restricted to voting
for a party only, and cannot express a preference for any candidate
within a party list. For a brief overview of Electoral Systems
see Box 3.
- Valen, Henry. 1966. "The Recruitment of Parliamentary Nominees in Norway". Scandinavian Political Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1. pp. 121–166; and Valen, Henry. 1988. "Norway: Decentralization and Group Representation". In Michael Gallagher and Michael Marsh. eds. Candidate Selection in Comparative Perspective.
London: Sage.
- Leduc, Niemi, and Norris. 1996.
- Bochel, John and David Denver. 1983. "Candidate Selection in the Labour Party: What the Selectors Seek". British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 13, No. 1. pp. 45–69.
- Darcy, R. and Sarah Slavin Schramm. 1977. "When Women Run Against Men". Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 41. pp. 1–12 and; Welch, Susan and Donley T. Studlar. 1986. "British Public Opinion Toward Women in Politics: A Comparative Perspective". Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 39. pp. 138–152.
- Seats are allocated in the following manner. All ballots are first counted to determine how many seats each party is to receive. Based on the ballot count each party is allocated a certain number of slots. For example, the Labour Party may win 20 seats on the city council. To determine which 20 candidates will fill those Labour slots, each Labour Party ballot is examined with votes for individual candidates counted based on where they appear on the ballots of those who voted for the Labour Party.
- Hellevik, Ottar and Tjor Bjørklund. 1995. "Velgerne og Kvinnerepresentasjon" ("Voters and Women’s Representation"); In Nina Raaum. ed. Kjønn og Politikk (Gender and Politcs). Oslo: Tano Press.
- There is a considerable accumulation of comparative evidence that underlines the structural advantages of PR in advantaging women’s representation. Of the top 10 countries as of March 1998 in terms of women’s representation – Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands, the Seychelles, Germany, New Zealand, Argentina and Austria – all utilized various forms of proportional representation. Several individual country situations in which electoral systems have been changed have further emphasized the apparent structural superiority of PR systems.
- Valen, 1988.
- Matland, Richard E. and Donley T. Studlar. 1996. "The Contagion of Women Candidates in Single-Member and Multi-Member Districts". Journal of Politics, Vol. 58, No. 3. pp. 707–733.
- Quotas are elaborated upon in the following chapter.
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