Anna Balletbo, MP Spain

Various factors can complicate women's entry into parliament, such as those that we have addressed in this chapter, including:

• Women's weak access to and integration into political institutions;

• The tailoring of many of these institutions according to
  male standards and political attitudes;

• Lack of party support, including money and other resources to fund women's campaigns and boost their political, social and economic credibility;

• The lack of media attention on women's contributions and potential, which also results in the lack of a constituency
  for women;

• The lack of co-ordination with and support from women's organizations and other NGOs;

• Women's low self-esteem and self-confidence, supported by certain cultural patterns which do not facilitate women's access to political careers; and,

• The type of electoral system as well as the lack of quota reservations.

Obstacles vary with the political situation in each country. In established democracies for example, an obstacle may be inequality within political parties where there is a legal limitation, such as the five per cent threshold vote, which political parties must obtain. In developing democracies, it may be access to the mass media or access to resources for conducting an election campaign. In military or authoritarian systems, it may be access to the political elite. Regardless of the political situation, in all countries the electoral system must be reformed to give women the effective right to be elected.

Excluding women from positions of power and from elected bodies impoverishes the development of democratic principles in public life and inhibits the economic development of a society. The majority of governing institutions are dominated by men who further their own interests. Male-dominated political institutions of government do not promote women or women's issues. Thus it remains imperative to emphasize that women themselves must organize and mobilize their networks, learn to communicate their interests with different organizations, and push for mechanisms to enhance their own representation. To that end, the following two chapters look at two of the most significant mechanisms which have been used to overcome many of the obstacles to women's legislative representation: namely, electoral systems and quotas.