Ideological and Psychological Hindrances

Ideological and psychological hindrances for women in entering parliament include the following:

• Gender ideology and cultural patterns, as well as
  pre-determined social roles assigned to women and men;

• Women's lack of confidence to run for elections;

• Women's perception of politics as a "dirty" game;

• The way in which women are portrayed in the mass media.

"Women have tried to enter politics trying to look like men. This will not work. We have to bring our differences, our emotions, our way of seeing things, even our tears to the process."

Anna Tibaijuka, Professor, Tanzania

In many countries, traditions continue to emphasize, and often dictate, women's primary role as mothers and housewives. A traditional, strong, patriarchal value system favours sexually segregated roles, and so-called "traditional cultural values" militate against the advancement, progress and participation of women in any political process. Societies all over the world are dominated by an ideology about "a woman's place". According to this perception, women should only play the role of "working mother", which is generally low-paid and apolitical. In addition, in some developing societies, men even tell women how to vote.

This is the environment that many women face ­ one in which a certain collective image of women in traditional, apolitical roles continues to dominate. The image of a woman leader requires that she be asexual in her speech and manners, someone who can be identified as a woman only through nonsexual characteristics. Often it is supposed to be unacceptable, or even shameful in the mass consciousness, for women to be open about their feminine nature. In fact, the more authoritative and "manly" a woman is, the more she corresponds to the undeclared male rules of the game. That is why women politicians in general, and women MPs in particular, have to overcome this difficulty of feeling uncomfortable in the political field ­ as though they are somewhere where they do not belong, behaving in ways that are not natural to them.

Often women internalize many of these ideas, and end up feeling a sense of guilt when they can not correspond to this almost impossible image. This sense of guilt is inextricably tied to a sense of having to be apologetic either for her own womanhood or for betraying her sense of womanhood, when women ought to be proud of both. Until they reconcile (or make the choice) between certain collective images, dominant stereotypes, and their own feminine nature, their lives will be difficult and it will be hard for them to accommodate these clashing expectations. A woman should be prepared for the fact that when she becomes a politician, she does not cease to be a woman. It is this womanhood which should be placed first, since it contains different creative potentials and intellectual strength. The ability to make decisions and implement them is not a gender-specific trait, but a common human one; in other words, a man holding power is natural, and a woman holding power is natural too ­ or ought to be.

"Women don’t have the right to cry; it’s only the privilege of men. A male MP, even a minister, can cry. It’s normal. It’s not being emotional, it’s being intelligent. But women don’t have the right to be weak, to cry, to show our emotions – because we live in a time when to be in politics, we have to behave more like a man."

Rawya Shawa, MP Palestine

Lack of Confidence

"Once we’re in parliament, we should not give the impression that we are very special, gifted women, especially created by God to serve as special preachers. No, we should tell other women that you are just like us, and you can also reach parliament, with some struggle, with some education, with some talent."

Sushma Swaraj, MP India

The Perception of Politics as "Dirty"

The basis of passive corruption can be explained by an exchange between the advantages and benefits of the public market (e.g., legislation, budget orders) and of the economic market (e.g., funds, votes, employment), which seek financial gains by escaping competition and by fostering monopolistic conditions. In addition to this, a significant increase in the cost of election campaigning has become obvious ­ which in turn increases the temptation of using any source of money that becomes available.

Corruption can have many faces. Bribery and extortion in the public sector, as well as procurement of goods and services, constitute key manifestations of corruption. Although emerging democracies need time to establish and to develop roots, corruption has spread further in countries where the process of political and economic transformation is taking shape in the absence of civil society, and where new institutions are emerging. However, in many places where the changes in the political and economic system have already taken place, market economy has become synonymous with the law of the jungle, the mafia, and corruption.

Moreover, hypocrisy is an increasingly common feature developing in countries with established centralist and authoritarian regimes. There are "survival rules" in an economy of persistent scarcity which stand in stark contrast to the ideas officially proclaimed by the state. In poor countries the financing of political parties and the survival of an independent press remain major unresolved problems for the development of democratic functions.

Corruption and organized crime scare women and provoke their fears of losing members of their families, all of which militates against their political involvement or their running for elected bodies.

The high cost of bribery and extortion for a society has been recognized. Many governments and business leaders have expressed their desire to curb and eliminate corruption. But this is not an easy task; corruption is rooted in the system by some parties who continue to pay bribes. Corruption inevitably results in the creation of favourable conditions and opportunities for the existence of the most negative manifestation of organized crime. These factors combine to scare women and provoke their fears of losing members of their families, all of which militates against their political involvement or their running for elected bodies.

Although the perception of corruption may not always be a fair reflection of the actual state of affairs, it is itself having an impact on women's attitude towards a political career. Is it a coincidence that countries with a small or moderate degree of corruption seem to have a higher rate of women's representation in elected bodies? According to the Transparency International Report of 1997, countries such as Nigeria, Pakistan, Kenya, Bangladesh and others are perceived to be most corrupt. Women's representation in parliaments in these countries is very low ­ only three to nine per cent are women MPs. Whereas Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, and New Zealand are perceived as the least corrupt, and in these countries women MPs comprise from 30 per cent to 40.4 per cent ­ in other words, five to ten times more.

Women who have made the decision to stand for election should take all of these circumstances into consideration and be ready to resist the corruption "disease". Since corruption requires secrecy, and democracy means increased openness resulting from political pluralism and the freedom of the press, political liberalization should diminish corruption. Democracy, by ensuring the real participation of the people and the establishment of efficient countervailing powers, will contribute to curbing corruption.

At the same time, market forces cannot replace the rule of law. Economic liberalization should contribute to a reduction in the phenomenon of corruption, though this will not occur automatically. A legally supported market economy will reduce the opportunities for corruption. Hence, it remains important to have the political commitment and the will to eliminate this negative phenomenon of contemporary societies by putting this issue high on the political agenda. Women can contribute a great deal in this area.

The Role of Mass Media

The media can be used to cultivate gender biases and promote a stereotype about "a woman's place", helping conservative governments and societies put the blame on women for the failure in family policy, and reinforce the idea that women are responsible for the deterioration of social problems, such as divorce and the growth of minor crimes. Another widespread trend in the media is to depict women as beautiful objects. In this case, women are identified and objectified according to their gender, and are made to internalize certain notions of beauty and attractiveness which relate more to a woman's physical capacities than to her mental faculties. Such an approach encourages the long-standing patriarchal stereotype of the "weaker sex", where women are sexual objects and "second-class" citizens.

Admittedly, the mass media also tells stories about women politicians and about businesswomen and their successes, but this kind of coverage is rare and infrequent. More typical is the presentation of topics such as fashion competitions, movie stars, art, and the secrets of eternal youth. Not surprisingly, such views hardly promote women's sense of self-worth and self-respect or encourage them to take on positions of public responsibility.

Mass media still needs to recognize the equal value and dignity of men and women.

The role of mass media in an election process can not be emphasized enough, and is yet to receive adequate global and comparative research. Practically speaking, if there is lack of proper coverage of women's issues and the activities of women MPs, this results in the lack of a forum for provoking public awareness about these issues. And in turn, this translates into a lack of constituency for women MPs. Mass media still needs to recognize the equal value and dignity of men and women.

The main mission of the women's movement is to inculcate the right type of confidence and belief among women and to cultivate assertive stances among them. Nothing comes on a silver plate. Women's job is to build a civilized society according to a paradigm that reflects their values, strengths and aspirations, thereby reinforcing their ability to be attracted to and to participate in political processes.